Marked on the verb grammatically, the perfect[1] expresses a past action that still has consequences in the referential tense, which may be present, past, or future. The two primary uses of the perfect are resultative and experiential. The resultative perfect refers to a one-time incident in the past resulting in a state still applicable in the referential time. [2] The experiential perfect indicates that an event has happened at least once in the past and has relevance in the referential time. [3] In addition to the resultative and experiential, the perfect can be used to universal or continuous states, [4] evidentiality,[5] and even recent past. The perfect is often expressed periphrastically.

Types:

NoPfm: No special verb form exists to express the perfect.

PfmEsse: The perfect is expressed through the use of a periphrastic construction with the verb ‘be’ or is derived from such a construction.

PfmHabeo: The perfect is expressed through the use of a periphrastic construction with the verb ‘have’ or is derived from such a construction.

PfmMixAux: For some verbs, the perfect is expressed through the use of periphrastic construction with the verb ‘be’ or is derived from such a construction, while for other verbs it is expressed through the use of periphrastic construction with the verb ‘have’ or is derived from such a construction.[6]

PfmW: The perfect is expressed through the use of independent, grammaticalized words that have a lexical meaning of completion, such as ‘already’ or ‘finish.’[7]

[1] The perfect is not to be confused with the perfective aspect.

[2] Consider the following example: My wallet has been stolen.

[3] Consider the following example: I’ve seen worse.

[4] Consider the following example: I’ve lived here for three years.

[5] Consider the following example: You’ve been drinking! (= I guess you are drunk.)

[6] The distribution between the ‘be’ and ‘have’ constructions should be detailed in the commentary.

[7] Use of non-grammaticalized words (e.g. independent adverbs or adverbial phrases) does not establish the presence of a grammatical perfect. If this value applies, the specific words and their usage should be described in the commentary.