Causative constructions (CC) describe a situation involving two events: (1) the causing event, in which the causer does or initiates something; and (2) the caused event, in which the causee carries out an action, or undergoes a change of condition or state as a result of the causer’s action. Causation can be expressed one of three ways: lexically[1], morphologically, or syntactically (also known as analytically or periphrastically). This parameter considers only non-periphrastic strategies for expressing causation.
Non-periphrastic syntactic causatives fulfill the following three criteria:
1. The causing event and caused event appear in the same clause, expressed by a single (one- or two-verb) predicate.
2. The causer appears in a higher grammatical position in the sentence than the causee. For example, the causer might appear as the grammatical agent[2], while the causee appears as the grammatical patient[3] or in an adverbial phrase.
3. The grammatical strategy used to mark the causative function fulfills no other semantic purpose in the sentence.
Types:
NoNonpfrCC: The language does not have non-periphrastic causatives.[4]
MorfNonpfrCC: Causatives are expressed using a non-periphrastic, morphological strategy.[5]
FlexNonpfrCC: Causatives are expressed using a non-periphrastic, morphophonological strategy.[6]
VVNonpfrCC: Causatives are expressed using a non-periphrastic, compound-verb strategy.[7]
[1] Lexical causatives are those words that simultaneously express the causing event and caused event, such as kill (‘cause to die’) and push (‘cause to move’). In some cases, causative and non-causative verb pairs may differ only in terms of internal flexion or other phonological contrast (for example, English fall ↔ fell). However, these contrasts are generally not systematic. All languages use lexical causatives in addition to relying on either morphological or periphrastic strategies to form new causatives. For this reason, only morphological and periphrastic strategies are worth considering for typological classification.
[2] In nominative languages, this is the subject.
[3] In nominative languages, this is the object.
[4] If this value applies, the value of Morphological causatives should be NoMorphCC.
[5] This value indicates that causation is expressed by the use of an affix, which attaches to the verb. If this value applies, the value NoMorphCC cannot apply for the parameter Morphological causation.
[6] Such strategies may include internal flexion or the use of tone to mark the causative function, as long as use of the strategy is consistent (not lexically based). If this value applies, the value ElseMorfCC must apply for the parameter Morphological causation.
[7] In the compound-verb strategy, two verbs appear directly alongside each other: one expresses the caused event and the other fulfills a causative function. This strategy should not be confused with either morphological causatives or periphrastic, two-clause strategies.